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Islamic History Center

A journey through 1400 years of Islamic civilization - from the Prophetic mission to the end of the Ottoman Caliphate

This section relies on multiple historical sources, noting scholarly differences where they exist

Explore History Today's Event
1400+
Years of History
From the Prophetic mission to today
5
Major Eras
Prophetic Era - Ottoman
4
Rightly Guided Caliphs
Abu Bakr - Ali
9
Decisive Battles
According to historical sources

Quick Access

Islamic Eras
Rightly Guided Caliphs
Battles
Today's Event
Scholars & Thinkers
Methodology
Sources & References

📅 Today in Islamic History

Tuesday, 18 Ramadan 1447 AH

Events according to the Hijri calendar, noting differences in sources where necessary

Death of Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum the Blind
18 Ramadan 1 AH AH / 622 CE Gregorian
Death of Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum the Blind
Medina
Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum was one of the close companions. The verse "He frowned and turned away" was revealed concerning him. He was a muezzin for the Prophet ﷺ along with Bilal ibn Rabah.
Note: Sources agree that he was blind and one of the Prophet's ﷺ muezzins.
Conquest of the City of Edessa (Al-Ruha)
18 Ramadan 21 AH AH / 642 CE Gregorian
Conquest of the City of Edessa (Al-Ruha)
Euphrates Region
The city of Edessa was conquered during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab by Iyad ibn Ghanam. It was one of the most important cities of the Euphrates region.
Note: Sources mention that the conquest of Edessa was without fighting after negotiations.
Birth of Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi
18 Ramadan 384 AH AH / 994 CE Gregorian
Birth of Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi
Cordoba - Andalusia
Imam Ali ibn Hazm al-Zahiri was born, author of Al-Muhalla and Al-Ihkam fi Usul al-Ahkam, one of the most prominent scholars of Andalusia.
Note: Ibn Hazm is considered one of the leading scholars of fiqh, hadith, and history, and he authored more than 400 works.
Next: Scholars & Thinkers Back to Battles More Events
Historical events that occurred on this day

🏛️ Major Islamic Eras

An academic classification agreed upon in broad outlines, with differences in details among historians

Prophetic Era
Prophetic Era 610 - 632 CE
The era of the establishment of the first Islamic state in Medina, witnessing the revelation of the Quran and the building of Islamic society.
Beginning of revelation and Quranic descent
Migration to Medina and state establishment
Battles of Badr, Uhud, and the Trench
Prophet Muhammad ﷺ Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq Umar ibn Al-Khattab
Main sources: Ibn Hisham's Prophetic Biography, Ibn Sa'd's Tabaqat
23 years
Details
Rashidun Caliphate
Rashidun Caliphate 632 - 661 CE
The era of the four caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, witnessing significant expansion of the Islamic state.
Wars of apostasy and unification of Arabia
Compilation of the Quran into a single mushaf
Conquest of the Levant, Iraq, and Egypt
Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq Umar ibn Al-Khattab Uthman ibn Affan
Historical narrations differ regarding some events at the end of this era, and it is recommended to consult multiple sources.
29 years
Details
Umayyad Caliphate
Umayyad Caliphate 661 - 750 CE
The first hereditary Islamic state, reaching the greatest geographical extent in Islamic history.
Conquests in Andalusia and Central Asia
Construction of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque
Arabization of diwans and administrative system
Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan Abdul Malik ibn Marwan Al-Walid ibn Abdul Malik
Sources: Tarikh al-Tabari, Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh by Ibn al-Athir, Futuh al-Buldan by Al-Baladhuri
89 years
Details
Abbasid Caliphate
Abbasid Caliphate 750 - 1258 CE
The Golden Age of Islamic civilization, witnessing unprecedented flourishing in science, philosophy, and translation.
Establishment of the House of Wisdom and translation movement
Flourishing of medicine, astronomy, and mathematics
Codification of fiqh schools and hadith
Abu Ja'far al-Mansur Harun al-Rashid Al-Ma'mun
There is disagreement about the classification of some scholars according to their doctrinal affiliations; we have only mentioned the famous ones.
508 years
Details
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire 1299 - 1924 CE
The last Islamic caliphate, lasting more than six centuries and spanning three continents.
Conquest of Constantinople, fulfilling the Prophet's ﷺ prophecy
Protection of the Islamic world from European expansion
Development of the legal and administrative system
Mehmed the Conqueror Suleiman the Magnificent Selim I
Narratives differ regarding the reasons for the fall of the Ottoman Empire among Turkish, Arab, and Western historians.
625 years
Details
Next: Rightly Guided Caliphs Back to Start
5 major eras from the Prophetic mission to the fall of the Caliphate

👑 The Rightly Guided Caliphs

Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali - According to the accepted chronological order, noting historical differences

Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq
The First Caliph

Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq

11 - 13 AH / 632 - 634 CE (2 years and 3 months)
The first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, companion of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ in the cave, and one of the ten promised Paradise.
His caliphate is agreed upon by Ahl al-Sunnah, while the Shia have a different view on the issue of caliphate.
"O people, if you worship Muhammad, know that Muhammad has died. But if you worship Allah, know that Allah is alive and never dies."
Umar ibn Al-Khattab
The Second Caliph

Umar ibn Al-Khattab

13 - 23 AH / 634 - 644 CE (10 years and 6 months)
The second of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, one of the great military and administrative leaders in Islamic history.
Considered the founder of the Islamic administrative system, known for his just and firm policies.
"If a camel fell into the Euphrates River, I would fear that Allah would question me about it."
Uthman ibn Affan
The Third Caliph

Uthman ibn Affan

23 - 35 AH / 644 - 656 CE (12 years)
The third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, compiled the Quran into a single mushaf, and married two daughters of the Prophet ﷺ.
Narratives differ regarding the events at the end of his caliphate, considered a period of fitnah (turmoil) in Islamic history.
"If your hearts were pure, you would never get enough of the words of your Lord."
Ali ibn Abi Talib
The Fourth Caliph

Ali ibn Abi Talib

35 - 40 AH / 656 - 661 CE (5 years)
The fourth of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, cousin of the Prophet ﷺ and husband of his daughter Fatima, and one of the ten promised Paradise.
Holds a special status among both Sunni and Shia, with differences in narrating some events.
"The value of every person is what they do well."
Next: Decisive Battles Back to Eras Reread
The four Rightly Guided Caliphs - their caliphate lasted 29 years

⚔️ Decisive Battles in Islamic History

Battles that changed the course of history - According to multiple historical narrations

Battle of Badr

Battle of Badr

2 AH AH
The first major battle in Islam, where the Muslims (313 fighters) faced Quraysh (about 1000)
Muslim victory according to historical sources
Islamic sources agree on its occurrence, with slight differences in the number of fighters
Battle of Uhud

Battle of Uhud

3 AH AH
Began with a Muslim victory, then turned due to the archers disobeying the Prophet's order
Inconclusive victory - the archers' disobedience changed the outcome
Sources agree on the martyrdom of Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib in this battle
Battle of the Trench

Battle of the Trench

5 AH AH
The trench was dug around Medina based on the suggestion of Salman al-Farsi
Muslim victory without major fighting
Sources mention that Allah sent a wind that scattered the confederates without fighting
Conquest of Mecca

Conquest of Mecca

8 AH AH
The Prophet ﷺ entered Mecca with an army of 10,000 fighters with little resistance
Peaceful entry and general amnesty
Sources agree that the conquest was peaceful after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Battle of Yarmouk

Battle of Yarmouk

15 AH AH
One of the largest battles in Islamic history, involving about 40,000 Muslims against 100,000-140,000 Byzantines
Decisive Muslim victory
Figures on the number of armies differ between Islamic and Byzantine sources
Battle of Qadisiyyah

Battle of Qadisiyyah

15 AH AH
A battle that lasted several days, in which the Persians used elephants for the first time
Muslim victory and end of Sasanian rule
Sources agree on its importance in the fall of the Sasanian Empire
Conquest of Andalusia

Conquest of Andalusia

92 AH AH
Tariq ibn Ziyad landed with his army at Gibraltar and began the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
Muslim victory and beginning of Islamic rule lasting 8 centuries
Narratives differ about the truth of burning the ships, and some historians doubt it
Battle of Ain Jalut

Battle of Ain Jalut

658 AH AH
The first battle where the Mongols were defeated after their invasion of the Islamic world
Muslim victory and first Mongol defeat
Sources agree on its importance, with differences over tactical details
Conquest of Constantinople

Conquest of Constantinople

857 AH AH
The siege lasted 53 days, and massive cannons were used for the first time
Ottoman victory and end of Byzantium
Islamic and Western sources agree on the importance of the conquest and its impact on European history
Next: Today's Events Back to Caliphs View Battles Again
9 decisive battles that changed the course of Islamic history

🔬 Scholars & Thinkers

Contributions of Islamic civilization to science and culture

Al-Khwarizmi

Al-Khwarizmi

Mathematics and Astronomy - 3rd AH / 9th CE
Founded the science of algebra, introduced Arabic numerals to Europe, authored the book Al-Jabr wa'l-Muqabalah
Considered the founder of algebra, and the word "Algorithm" is derived from his name in Latin.
"Arithmetic is the science of numbers"
Abu Bakr al-Razi

Abu Bakr al-Razi

Medicine and Chemistry - 3rd-4th AH / 9th-10th CE
One of the greatest Muslim physicians, first to distinguish between smallpox and measles, contributed to the development of chemistry and clinical medicine
Has great contributions to medicine, though some scholars have criticized his philosophical views.
"A physician should give the patient hope and promise recovery"
Ibn al-Haytham

Ibn al-Haytham

Optics and Physics - 5th AH / 11th CE
Founder of modern optics, explained the structure of the eye and vision, used the experimental method
Considered a pioneer of the scientific experimental method, called by some historians "Ptolemy the Second".
"Truth is sought for its own sake"
Jabir ibn Hayyan

Jabir ibn Hayyan

Chemistry - 2nd AH / 8th CE
Developed the experimental method in chemistry, discovered many compounds and chemicals
Researchers differ on the attribution of some works to him, but his influence on European chemistry is clear.
"Science is light, ignorance is darkness"
Al-Biruni

Al-Biruni

Astronomy and Geography - 5th AH / 11th CE
Accurately calculated the Earth's circumference, wrote about India and its civilization, works in astronomy and mathematics
Considered one of the greatest scholars of the Islamic era, with orientalists praising his scientific accuracy and objectivity.
"Adorn yourself with knowledge"
Next: How Do We Write History? Back to Events
5 of the greatest scholars of Islamic civilization

📖 How Do We Write History?

Introduction to Islamic Historical Research Methodology

Difference between Historical and Doctrinal Narration

Historical narration relies on documenting events as they occurred, mentioning sources and differences, while doctrinal narration aims to reinforce beliefs and may select events that serve that purpose. In this section, we adopt the historical method, noting different narrations without denying them.

Difference between Early and Late Sources

Early sources (such as al-Tabari and Ibn Ishaq) are closer in time to events but may be influenced by the conditions of their era. Late sources (such as Ibn Kathir and Ibn Khaldun) benefit from accumulated knowledge but may be further removed from the time of events. We rely on balancing between them.

Influence of Politics on Writing History

The writing of Islamic history was influenced by political and sectarian conflicts, especially during periods of strife among the Companions, and during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. We note these influences when necessary.

This section reflects the methodology we adopt in writing historical content

Next: Sources & References Back to Scholars
Scientific methodology in writing Islamic history

Scientific Methodology and Sources

In preparing this section, we have relied on a scientific methodology based on:

Primary Historical Sources

  • History of the Messengers and Kings - Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
  • The Complete History - Izz al-Din ibn al-Athir
  • The Beginning and the End - Ibn Kathir al-Dimashqi
  • The Book of Lessons and Archive of Causes and Events - Ibn Khaldun
  • Conquests of the Lands - Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri

Modern References

  • Political, Religious and Cultural History of Islam - Hassan Ibrahim Hassan
  • Encyclopedia of Islamic History - Mahmoud Shakir
  • The Ottoman State: Factors of Rise and Causes of Fall - Ali al-Salabi
  • Islamic Civilization - Shawqi Abu Khalil

Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

  • Prominent Figures - Khayr al-Din al-Zirikli
  • Dictionary of Countries - Yaqut al-Hamawi
  • Deaths of Eminent Men - Ibn Khallikan

We note that there are differences among historians regarding some precise details, and we refer those wishing to delve deeper to the sources mentioned above.

Back to Beginning of History
15 authenticated historical sources

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